2000 Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery
The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE), held in Tokyo from 1946 to 1948, failed to prosecute crimes related to the state-sanctioned system of military sexual slavery as punishable war crimes under international humanitarian law. Following Hak-Soon Kim’s groundbreaking public testimony in 1991, the 1993 Kono Statement, and increasing civic engagement to redress the issue of the “comfort women,” all Japanese middle school history textbooks began including information on the “comfort women” system starting in 1997 as a follow-up measure to the Kono Statement. However, in February of that same year, the Association of Young Diet Members for Japan’s Future and Historical Education (日本の前途と歴史教育を考える若手議員の会) was established, and Shinzo Abe—who later became Japan’s Prime Minister (2006–2007, 2012–2020)—served as its first executive director (事務局長). In that position, Abe led a movement promoting a nationalistic view of Japanese history; the resulting textbooks glossed over war crimes committed by Japan, including the “comfort women” system.
In 1998, the 5th Asian Solidarity Conference was held in Seoul, Korea. At that conference, Matsui Yayori[1] of Violence Against Women in War Network Japan (VAWW-NET Japan) proposed convening a Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal (WIWCT), and the proposal was adopted. In response, the International Organizing Committee (IOC) was formed and convened the WIWCT in Tokyo from December 8 to 12, 2000, as a people’s tribunal and historical supplement to the IMTFE. The WIWCT marked the first transnational feminist movement to demand justice and reparations for rape and sexual slavery during the Second World War.
The IOC, chaired by representatives from South Korea, Japan, and the Philippines, drafted the Charter of the Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal 2000 for the Trial of Japanese Military Sexual Slavery.[2] The IOC convenors were: Chung-Ok Yun from the Korean Council, Matsui Yayori from VAWW-NET Japan, and Indai Loudres Sajor from the Asian Centre for Women’s Human Rights.
Over the course of five days, more than a thousand people attended the tribunal daily. The prosecutors came from ten different countries: Japan, South Korea, North Korea, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, Malaysia, Taiwan, China, and the Netherlands.[3] Thirty-five of the sixty-four surviving victims, representing eight Asian countries, including North and South Korea, China, Indonesia, and Myanmar, took part in the trial and testified.[4] The 2000 Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal, gathering testimonies from the surviving victims, tried groups and individuals for rape and sexual slavery on behalf of the surviving former “comfort women.”[5]
Judge Gabrielle Kirk-McDonald, former president of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia from 1997 to 1999, presided over the tribunal. On December 12, 2000, the court delivered the preliminary judgment that found Emperor Hirohito (served 1926–1947) guilty of the charges on the basis of command responsibility. The panel of judges—Gabrielle Kirk-McDonald, Carmen Argibay, Christine Chinkin, and Willy Mutunga—also found the Japanese government responsible and recommended reparations.[6]
On December 4, 2001, The Hague issued the final verdict of the 2000 Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery, stating that Emperor Hirohito was (posthumously) guilty of criminal negligence. The tribunal found Emperor Hirohito, as supreme commander of the country, ultimately responsible for executing the military sexual slavery system.[7] In addition, nine Japanese military officials and the Japanese Emperor Hirohito were found guilty of incurring individual and superior responsibility for the crimes of rape and sexual slavery committed as part of the military sexual slavery system.[8] Although the Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal lacked the legal authority to enforce its judgments—and therefore did not convict all of the accused—it provided an empowering platform for former “comfort women” to share their testimonies with the world, gaining international recognition for the trauma and experiences they endured.
Submitted by Sung Sohn
[1] Matsui Yayori (1934–2002) advocated for victims of sexual violence, raising awareness of sexual slavery and sex tourism. She founded Asian Women in Solidarity in 1976, helped establish VAWW-NET Japan in 1998, and brought global attention to Japanese military sexual slavery. Her legacy includes funding the Women’s Active Museum of War and Peace, which opened in 2005.
[2] Ibid., Appendix A.
[3] Christine Levy, “The Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal, Tokyo 2000: a feminist response to revisionism?,” Clio [Online] 39, (2014).
[4] Ibid.
[5] Case number PT-2000-1-T.
[6] The Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery, Judgement on the Common Indictment and the Application for Restitution and Reparation, 2001, Appendix B.
[7] Ibid., 196.
[8] Ibid., 190–204.
The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE), held in Tokyo from 1946 to 1948, failed to prosecute crimes related to the state-sanctioned system of military sexual slavery as punishable war crimes under international humanitarian law. Following Hak-Soon Kim’s groundbreaking public testimony in 1991, the 1993 Kono Statement, and increasing civic engagement to redress the issue of the “comfort women,” all Japanese middle school history textbooks began including information on the “comfort women” system starting in 1997 as a follow-up measure to the Kono Statement. However, in February of that same year, the Association of Young Diet Members for Japan’s Future and Historical Education (日本の前途と歴史教育を考える若手議員の会) was established, and Shinzo Abe—who later became Japan’s Prime Minister (2006–2007, 2012–2020)—served as its first executive director (事務局長). In that position, Abe led a movement promoting a nationalistic view of Japanese history; the resulting textbooks glossed over war crimes committed by Japan, including the “comfort women” system.
In 1998, the 5th Asian Solidarity Conference was held in Seoul, Korea. At that conference, Matsui Yayori[1] of Violence Against Women in War Network Japan (VAWW-NET Japan) proposed convening a Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal (WIWCT), and the proposal was adopted. In response, the International Organizing Committee (IOC) was formed and convened the WIWCT in Tokyo from December 8 to 12, 2000, as a people’s tribunal and historical supplement to the IMTFE. The WIWCT marked the first transnational feminist movement to demand justice and reparations for rape and sexual slavery during the Second World War.
The IOC, chaired by representatives from South Korea, Japan, and the Philippines, drafted the Charter of the Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal 2000 for the Trial of Japanese Military Sexual Slavery.[2] The IOC convenors were: Chung-Ok Yun from the Korean Council, Matsui Yayori from VAWW-NET Japan, and Indai Loudres Sajor from the Asian Centre for Women’s Human Rights.
Over the course of five days, more than a thousand people attended the tribunal daily. The prosecutors came from ten different countries: Japan, South Korea, North Korea, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, Malaysia, Taiwan, China, and the Netherlands.[3] Thirty-five of the sixty-four surviving victims, representing eight Asian countries, including North and South Korea, China, Indonesia, and Myanmar, took part in the trial and testified.[4] The 2000 Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal, gathering testimonies from the surviving victims, tried groups and individuals for rape and sexual slavery on behalf of the surviving former “comfort women.”[5]
Judge Gabrielle Kirk-McDonald, former president of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia from 1997 to 1999, presided over the tribunal. On December 12, 2000, the court delivered the preliminary judgment that found Emperor Hirohito (served 1926–1947) guilty of the charges on the basis of command responsibility. The panel of judges—Gabrielle Kirk-McDonald, Carmen Argibay, Christine Chinkin, and Willy Mutunga—also found the Japanese government responsible and recommended reparations.[6]
On December 4, 2001, The Hague issued the final verdict of the 2000 Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery, stating that Emperor Hirohito was (posthumously) guilty of criminal negligence. The tribunal found Emperor Hirohito, as supreme commander of the country, ultimately responsible for executing the military sexual slavery system.[7] In addition, nine Japanese military officials and the Japanese Emperor Hirohito were found guilty of incurring individual and superior responsibility for the crimes of rape and sexual slavery committed as part of the military sexual slavery system.[8] Although the Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal lacked the legal authority to enforce its judgments—and therefore did not convict all of the accused—it provided an empowering platform for former “comfort women” to share their testimonies with the world, gaining international recognition for the trauma and experiences they endured.
Submitted by Sung Sohn
[1] Matsui Yayori (1934–2002) advocated for victims of sexual violence, raising awareness of sexual slavery and sex tourism. She founded Asian Women in Solidarity in 1976, helped establish VAWW-NET Japan in 1998, and brought global attention to Japanese military sexual slavery. Her legacy includes funding the Women’s Active Museum of War and Peace, which opened in 2005.
[2] Ibid., Appendix A.
[3] Christine Levy, “The Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal, Tokyo 2000: a feminist response to revisionism?,” Clio [Online] 39, (2014).
[4] Ibid.
[5] Case number PT-2000-1-T.
[6] The Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery, Judgement on the Common Indictment and the Application for Restitution and Reparation, 2001, Appendix B.
[7] Ibid., 196.
[8] Ibid., 190–204.